My apparent silence on the blog is mostly due to a profound lack of wargaming activity and continued lack of focus and distractions. I have however, been reading and researching the battle of Pavia. The words in the title are credited to the Marquis of Pescara. for the unwary researcher of the battle, a version might be "grant me 100 sources, and not one agrees!"
Suffice to say, what actually happened on that dark overcast night and misty morning 500 years ago cannot be established with certainty and even the number of men who were engaged is far from certain. Few of the contemporary accounts agree or give more than hints of detail. "Modern" historians from the early to late part of the C20th have taken bits from here and there, discounted some accounts, even walked the ground and created versions of the battle that have been repeated without question, especially by wargamers....
Even the contemporary accounts were written to excuse or glorify certain nations, with French, German, Spanish and Neapolitans each seeking to take ownership of the victory or explain why the French lost so badly. It has even been questioned whether the Imperialists were seeking battle or merely conducting a raid to resupply the besieged garrison.
To make sense of the battle, it is necessary to split down the various parts into the geography, the forces, the actions / sequence and ideas for refighting the battle as a wargame.
Geography
Perhaps the biggest handicap is a good map of the actual battle. More than one modern author has been led astray by failing to grasp some of the geographical aspects. Not least is the failure to grasp that there were in fact TWO parks, the old and the new, divided by a boundary wall. Many maps do not make this clear, omitting the wall encircling the new park. In turn this has led to many historians opting for a point of entry that is both unlikely and not supported by the sources.
While searching for more information on the appearance of the walls, gates and the Mirabello palace, I discovered an Italian book "Mirabello di Pavia" by Faustino Gianani. This is a history of the park and palace and devotes a chapter to the battle. Translated laboriously with the aid of a translation pen, it demolishes many of the myths and supports the arguments given by contemporary or near contemporary sources. It serves as a useful counterpoint or corrective to "The Battle of Pavia" by Jean Giono, which is an otherwise essential source for the battle. In particular, it casts doubt on many of the locations given by Giono and credited with special significance. No where is this more important than the location where the Imperialists broke into the park.
Giono, following the German historian Thom, opts for the point of entry as the Porta Pescarina and discredits an contemporary resident of Pavia, Antonio Grumello who gives an authoritative description of the break in at the Duo Porte on the east wall. To reach the Pescarina gate would require rthe Imperialists to first break through the encircling park wall before then breaking into the northern boundary wall at the Pescarina - which despite the name has no connection to the Marquis of Pescara, already being so named. A map should make things clearer; many omit the new park wall and so give credence to the Pescarina gate theory.
Credit: http://www.parcovecchio.it/BattagliaDiPavia.html (link to site appears broken)
Three breaches were made by 2000 Gustatori - pioneers - the gate itself and one each to either side.
Initially, I thought the Pescarina gate more likely as there is a road and the ground was described as boggy. Interestingly, while the walls are long gone and the Mirabello palace much altered, the gates themselves still exist.
Porta Pescarina
https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/architetture/schede/1A050-00589/
Due Porte
https://www.collegeofkings.com/pavia-park-walls/
It also suggests to me the encircling wall and dividing wall were possibly of different styles. A contemporary woodcut suggests the main walls were crenelated in the Ghibeline style.
The woodcut also shows the appearance of the Mirabello palace, much altered today.
Note on the map the large and small woods and the marshy Vernavola stream. Giono points out most of the trees would have shed their leaves the eastern wood also having dense undergrowth. The Vernavola may have been wooded and there is a raised road, used for horse races by the Dukes of Milan.
Forces
Note few sources, either contemporary or modern agree. The following represents the best estimate I can reach after consulting various sources.
French
Gensdarmes 1200 to 1300 "lances" giving between 3600 and 5200 + heavy cavalry
NOTE it is common to refer to the number of heavy cavalry by "lance" - a lance included between 3 and 4 extra fighting men such as "archers". The French attacked "en haye" so the lighter cavalry would support the fully armoured knight in the same formation. This is supported by a Spaniard Iacobo De Neile who gives the French 2000 heavy cavalry and 5000 light - if we deduct the know 2000 LC this gives 5000 - a mixture of fully armoured and lighter cavalry. Some may have been Italian.
2000 Light cavalry including 700 Stradiots, the remainder mounted arquebus or crossbow, some of whom would be with Medici's Black Bands and so take no part in the battle.
8000 Swiss - most likely in two bodies of 5000 and 3000 - many had gone home or deserted prior to the battle. Maximum 10,000 though doubtful and may be many less than the 8000 given.
4-5000 Landesknechts including the Black Band, possibly in two bodies as both Lorraine and Suffolk are given as commanders
53 guns
There were also:
6000 French and 2500 to 4000 Italian infantry. These appear to have been left in the trenches surrounding Pavia. There s mention of 2000 Gascons with the king, but the others were either Medici's leaderless Black Bands (he was wounded before the battle) or French under Alencon who retreated.
Imperialists
700-800 Lances (as above) giving between 2100 and 3200 heavy cavalry
NOTE these included 500 Bavarian MAA under the Count of Salm and 500 Burgundian knights - the German cavalry supposedly fought in a deep wedge formation while the Burgundians fought like the French. The remainder were Spanish and Italian.
1500 light cavalry - Spanish or Neapolitan Ginetes
12,000 Landesknechts under Frundesberg and Sith - probably two bodies of 6000
5-7000 Spanish - most agree on 5000
3000 Arquebus made up of equal amounts of Spanish, German and Neapolitan - sometimes given as all Spanish or Neapolitan - Guicciardini says 6000 equally divided between those nationalities
16-17 guns
3000 Germans and 2000 Italians were left to guard the camp
Pavia Garrison sortie
200 dismounted knights, 3000 Spanish 6000 Landesknechts - maybe only 5-6000 sortied out
All numbers could be much lower for both sides.
Sequence
The Imperialists were said to have divided themselves into two bodies of horse and four of foot - the arquebus task force under del Vasto, the Spanish and the two German bodies. The arquebusiers and artillery passed through the breach nearest to Pavia and the gate itself respectively, then the first of the cavalry with the remainder in turn - I suspect the second body of horse was last. The first had both heavy and light cavalry. This looks like a column which could turn itself quickly into a line of battle.
At some stage the French became aware. While the arquebusier captured Mirabello and the camp of traders by surprise, it seems the artillery became stuck and were attacked by French cavalry (possibly light) and possibly Swiss. The artillery was captured the troops with it fleeing to some woods.
French artillery - either mobile guns moved up, guns entrenched in a French camp previously began taking the Spanish and Landesknechts under fire, causing them casualties and forcing them to shelter behind the raised road and whatever cover was available.
Francis arrived with the French cavalry and charged in masking his guns. He was counter-attacked by the Viceroy of Naples with the first body of cavalry, including some lights. Outnumbered, they gave way. Pescara with the Spanish and possibly del Vasto took the French cavalry under fire.
The Landesknechts under Frundesberg may have tackled a small body of Swiss (3000) on the French right flank who routed.
The Black Band Landesknechts came up to be attacked by the Imperialist Landesknechts who surrounded them and gave no quarter.
A second body of Swiss moving from the abbeys encountered their fleeing comrades, routing French cavalry and may have been attacked by a sortie from Pavia, they too routed away to discover the bridge over the river broken by Alencon, so many drowned.
The French cavalry now found themselves fighting infantry and possibly the second body of Imperialist cavalry plus whatever Naples had rallied. No longer able to charge, possibly in boggy ground they were slowly cut down and the king captured.
Wargaming the battle
Many wargames scenarios have the two armies lined up in a set piece battle. My reading suggests this was not how it unfurled. The Imperialists should have the capture of Mirabello as an objective.
As they are deploying with troops moving through the breaches, a French advance guard appears -opposite the Imperial artillery - cavalry and 3000 Swiss? The artillery seem to be alone so perhaps the arquebusiers had gone and the rest of the army was making it's way in.
Artillery is deployed by the French who take the Imperial infantry under fire. Are the advance guard deployed to protect them?
Francis arrives with the French cavalry and charges masking his guns so must be deployed facing the first Imperial infantry and Spanish. The French Black Band Landesknechts are still making their way forward.
So both sides are feeding troops in with a piecemeal arrival. Francis - something of a rash individual - probably thought his charge would sweep the enemy away, so it's unlikely they were fully deployed.
It probably needs some form of random entry with built in delay: for the Imperials (1) Arquebusiers, (2) artillery, (3) cavalry, (4) Spanish, (5) and (6) Germans, (7) second cavalry.
For the French (1) advance guard, (2) artillery, (3) French cavalry, (4) Black Band, (5) Swiss main body; the Imperialists should also be able to bring on a sortie from Pavia - historically a signal from guns in the Imperialist camp let the garrison know the relief was on the way.
I hope this has been of interest. While I won't make the 500th anniversary on the date, I do hope to finish my flats and refight the battle this year with any luck...
Sources
The best is The Italian Wars Volume 3 Francis I and the Battle of Pavia 1525; Massimo Predonzani & Vincenzo Alberici
The Battle of Pavia by Jean Giorno was once the definitive source, still useful with much on the terrain and background but flawed
Mirabello di Pavia; Il Parco, La Battaglia, La Parrocchia by Faustino Gianani is useful to correct some of the fanciful aspects of Giorno
Francesco Guicciardini The History of Italy is available in an antiquarian translation - be wary of the English modern translations as these are extracts omitting any of the details of battles for the most part! For Pavia you need books 15 & 16
Oman is virtually useless. Konstam's Pavia 1525 by Osprey is a rehash of secondary material - the maps for example end at the corner of the old park and new, giving the impression no other walls exist or simply omit them completely, moderately useful but approach with caution.
I have looked at various articles both written and on the internet, as well as various wargames scenarios, most of the latter are pure invention it has to be said. I'd also recommend the various woodcuts and paintings as well as the series of tapestries to give some period flavour, although most paintings are completely inaccurate and speculative. the tapestries are available in a large format book.
Fascinating assessment of the battle and the variety of often conflicting sources. I will return to this post when I am ready to tackle Pavia myself. How do you rate Verginalla's scenario of the battle or Oli's take on the battle in his blogpost,
ReplyDeletehttps://camisado1500s.blogspot.com/2025/02/of-all-i-had-only-honour-and-life-have.html?
Very interesting. Good to see you pick apart the secondary sources. Most books seem to copy previous accounts and don't question things.
ReplyDeleteYour suggestions for a more encounter style of battle make sense. With troops respectively, entering through breaches in the park wall, or assembling from the siege lines then rushing to the threatened quarter, a stand-up fight seems unlikely.
Thanks Jonathan. Verginalla's scenario is poor IMHO. He includes French infantry (pike) in the oob, but there is little evidence for them. He has started from the position that the Imperialists approached from the North - already being in the new park? None of the sources indicate this - the Imperialists were camped to the east, not the north. He fails to reflect the piecemeal arrival of the French. He also has the French camped to the west in the park, this is unlikely and reflects Jean Giono's account. Most likely most of the French were just north or west of Pavia.
ReplyDeleteOli's scenario manages to avoid a lot of the issues by not addressing them! He takes selections of events from the battle. That said looking at the photos, he has the French approaching from the west of the park - parallel to the wall - I assume the dividing wall between old and new parks. That suggests he's used Jean Giono (who he mentions).
The French are shown camping all over the place. It's fairly certain the Swiss were in the abbeys to the east of Pavia. The Italians to the south with some French. The main French camp was to the west of Pavia. Mirabello was the site (supposedly) for traders accompanying the army as well as ambassadors.
Francis was there briefly, but moved before the battle to an unknown location. Giono has him at Repentia (there's a plaque) but my Italian book suggests it was just a workman's cottage. He may have been moved there after capture. The most likely place is somewhere just to the north of Pavia in the old park, possibly close to the east wall. The advance would thus be from the south of the Imperial position, although the latter were in column so unless deployed would be hit in flank....
Neil